PG & Research Department of Biochemistry

  BLOOD GROUPING Blood grouping is a method used to determine an individual's blood type based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells. Understanding blood groups is crucial for safe blood transfusions, organ transplants, and prenatal care. Here’s an overview of the main blood group systems and their significance: 1. Major Blood Group Systems ABO System: Types: A, B, AB, and O. Antigens: Type A has A antigens. Type B has B antigens. Type AB has both A and B antigens. Type O has neither A nor B antigens. Antibodies: Type A has anti-B antibodies. Type B has anti-A antibodies. Type AB has no antibodies against A or B. Type O has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. Rh Factor: Types: Positive (+) or Negative (-). Antigen: Presence of the Rh antigen (D antigen) defines Rh-positive; absence defines Rh-negative. 2. Blood Typing Methods Forward Typing: Tests for the presence of antigens by mixing blood with antibodies against A and B antigens. Re...

  TISSUE ENGINEERING       Tissue engineering is a multidisciplinary field that aims to repair, replace, or regenerate damaged or diseased tissues and organs using a combination of cells, biomaterials, and growth factors. Here’s an overview of its key components, applications, and challenges: 1. Components Cells: The foundation of tissue engineering; can be sourced from the patient (autologous cells) or from donors (allogeneic cells). Stem cells are often used for their ability to differentiate into various cell types. Scaffolds: Biodegradable materials that provide structural support for cells to grow and organize into functional tissues. Scaffolds can be made from natural or synthetic materials, designed to mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM). Growth Factors: Proteins that stimulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and tissue regeneration. These factors can be incorporated into scaffolds or delivered through controlled-release systems. 2. Types of Tissue En...

  TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES Nanoparticles are tiny particles with dimensions in the nanometer range (1 to 100 nanometers). They possess unique properties that make them valuable in various fields, including medicine, electronics, and materials science. Here are the main types of nanoparticles: 1. Metallic Nanoparticles Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs): Used in medical imaging, drug delivery, and cancer treatment due to their biocompatibility and ease of functionalization. Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs): Known for their antimicrobial properties, commonly used in wound dressings and coatings. Platinum Nanoparticles: Employed in catalysis and as drug delivery agents. 2. Oxide Nanoparticles Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂) Nanoparticles: Used in sunscreen, photocatalysis, and as a white pigment. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles: Applied in cosmetics, sunscreens, and antimicrobial coatings. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Utilized in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and as drug delivery vehicles. 3. Polymeri...

  FOOD ADULTERANTS Food adulterants are substances added to food products to enhance their appearance, flavor, or shelf life, often at the expense of safety and quality. Here’s an overview of common food adulterants, their effects, and methods of detection: 1. Types of Food Adulterants Chemical Adulterants: Substances that can be harmful, such as: Artificial Colors: Used to enhance appearance but may cause allergic reactions (e.g., Sudan dyes in spices). Preservatives: Chemicals like sodium benzoate that prevent spoilage but can have health risks in large amounts. Sweeteners: Substitutes like saccharin that may pose health concerns. Biological Adulterants: Microbial contamination, such as: Pathogens: Bacteria like Salmonella or E. coli that can cause foodborne illnesses. Insects and Rodents: Unintentional contamination by pests. Physical Adulterants: Foreign substances added to food, including: Stones or Dirt: Found in grains and pulses. Water: Added to milk to increase v...

  HUMAN MICROBIOME The human microbiome refers to the vast collection of microorganisms—bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes—that inhabit various parts of the human body, primarily the gut. 1. Composition Diversity: The microbiome consists of trillions of microbes, with thousands of different species. The gut microbiome is the most studied, but significant communities are also found on the skin, in the mouth, and in other body sites. Individual Variation: Each person's microbiome is unique, influenced by factors such as genetics, diet, lifestyle, and environment. 2. Functions Digestion: Microbes help break down complex carbohydrates and fibers that human enzymes cannot digest, producing short-chain fatty acids beneficial for health. Immune System Regulation: The microbiome plays a crucial role in immune function, helping to train the immune system and protect against pathogens. Metabolism: It contributes to metabolic processes, influencing fat storage, energy productio...

  CRISPR-Cas is a groundbreaking technology that enables precise editing of DNA in various organisms.  CRISPR: Stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. It’s a natural defense mechanism found in bacteria that protects them from viruses. Cas (CRISPR-associated proteins): These proteins, like Cas9, are crucial for the editing process, acting as molecular scissors to cut DNA. PRINCIPLE: Guide RNA (gRNA): A short RNA sequence that matches the target DNA sequence. It directs the Cas protein to the precise location in the genome. DNA Cutting: Once the gRNA binds to the target DNA, the Cas protein cuts the DNA at that specific site. DNA Repair: The cell's natural repair mechanisms can then fix the break, which can be harnessed to insert or delete specific sequences. APPLICATIONS: Gene Editing: Allows scientists to alter genes in organisms for research, agriculture, and medicine. Therapeutics: Potential for treating genetic disorders by correcting f...

 Breast cancer is a complex disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth of cells in breast tissue. Here’s an overview of its key aspects: 1. Types of Breast Cancer Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC): The most common type, starting in the breast ducts and spreading to surrounding tissue. Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC): Begins in the lobules (milk-producing glands) and can spread to nearby tissues. Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS): A non-invasive form where cells inside the ducts have changed but haven’t spread. Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Lacks estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors, making it more challenging to treat. HER2-Positive Breast Cancer: Characterized by the overexpression of the HER2 protein, often more aggressive. 2. Risk Factors Genetic Factors: Mutations in genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 increase risk. Age: Risk increases with age, particularly after 50. Family History: A family history of breast cancer can elevate risk. Lifestyle Factors: Obesity, a...